War and World History

A rich field of sources gives us knowledge of wars—from the haunting remains of fortifications and weapons to papyrus documents, stone steles, and written histories. Consider these and other forms of evidence, as well as the viewpoints of historians (including the questionable stance of Eurocentrism), to arrive at a global-historical approach to the story of warfare.

When does war first appear, and where? This lecture traces the origins of warfare from the earliest evidence of mass violence in 12000 B.C. Investigate the question of the usefulness of war in early societies, the enigmatic uses of early weapons, and the pivotal links of agriculture to the rise of armed force.

In early Mesopotamia, the wealthy southern cities had no walls or armies. Yet the northern cities had fortifications and intense warfare. Explore how and why this happened, and how disputes over fertile land and trade routes sparked ancient warfare and conquest among the Egyptians, Sumerians, and Akkadians.

In the first of the major military revolutions, the chariot spread east across Asia. See how its evolving design created a lethal weapons system while revolutionizing pastoral life on the Asian steppes. Then, learn about the complex personnel and organization needed for chariot warfare and the "chariot nobility" that supplied it.

The transformations of the sword played a major role in early warfare. Here, study how dramatic advances in sword technology from the Bronze to the Iron ages changed the face of combat and how war itself drove the evolution from bronze to iron.

This lecture explores another world-changing military system, as mounted warriors and cavalry rose on the Asian steppes and in the expanding Assyrian Empire. Learn about major Assyrian innovations in military organization and strategy and the links between Assyrian conquest and the brilliant trading exploits of the Phoenicians.

Greek seafaring culture led to distinctive approaches to politics and war. The Greek city-state blended rule by aristocratic clans with a class of free citizens. Study the system of the city-state and the resulting hoplite culture of warfare, which brought revolutionary military strategy and the notion of equality on the battlefield.

Three powerful states rose in the first millennium B.C. In this lecture, encounter the groundbreaking Persian system of government, which adapted steppe military organization to control an empire. Then travel farther east, where you learn about the distinctive military cultures of the Indian Nanda kingdom and the Chou dynasty in China.

From ancient times, organized religions spurred complex conflicts. See how ancient mythologies of war arose and how themes of warfare were central to the early books of the Bible. In addition, explore the roots of Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Hinduism, and Buddhism and the pivotal factors of military thought in their development.

What gave rise to democracy in ancient Athens? The lecture answers this by tracing violent class conflicts and the outcomes of rule by tyrant-dictators. See how democracy was supported by warmaking and study the military culture, social rituals, and sexual codes of Athens and Sparta.

Following the 8th century B.C., splintering empires and shifting economics produced a major era of wars from Persia to China. Learn how innovations in the ability to wage war shaped this era, including dramatic advances in military logistics and technologies such as armor and powerful torsion artillery.

Military strongmen forged the empires of Rome, Mauryan India, and Han China. Trace the groundbreaking transfer of power in all three systems—from nobles to military leaders who rose through merit—and discover how war became commerce in Rome, and how deep philosophical conflicts divided military and civilian elites in the empires.

Complex interconnections of religion and warfare arose with the "state" religions of the new empires. In this lecture, see how military force was integral in spreading religions (including peace-minded Buddhism), and investigate military rebellions by Chinese Taoists and Jews and the changing roles of religion in the Roman armies.

Key political shifts accompanied the waning of the Roman, Han, and Mauryan empires. Follow the ascent of "barbarian" states that challenged the empires, leading to a blending of cultures and the granting of power to barbarian rulers. Also, witness the conquest of tracts of the former empires by steppe confederations and Arab tribes.

Track China's Tang dynasty as it expanded west in the 8th century backed by a vast military, and the Muslim caliphates as they conquered regions from the Atlantic to central Asia. Then, examine the blocking of Muslim expansionism by the West and the great clash of the caliphates and the Tang on the Silk Road.

Investigate broad advances in military technology in the Middle Ages as they spread across Europe, Africa, and Asia. As you focus on the cataphract, or armored horseman, you learn about innovations in the stirrup, bow, lance, and armor, as well as military architecture and torsion artillery.

Armored horse warriors were deeply linked to the rise of feudalism. Explore the feudal system across differing societies and its structure of autonomous states based in loyalty to military nobles. Then, study the feudal codes of chivalry, east and west, and feudal culture from ceremonial weaponry to heroic literature.

Following A.D. 1000, many violent religious conflicts emerged. Probe the events of the Crusades and the Christian and Muslim ideologies of holy war, trace Islamic conquest in India and West Africa, and examine the notion of "just" war in Hinduism and Buddhism.

Genghis Khan forged the legendary Mongol Empire as a great confederation of steppe tribes, pursuing world domination with huge and highly organized armies. Study the Mongols' extraordinary conquests, their cultural contributions, and their ultimate dissolution through issues of succession and internal wars.

The lecture opens on China's economic supremacy in the Middle Ages, fueled by military strength, trade, and sophisticated technology. You investigate historic power shifts within medieval Europe and the links between European wars and large-scale economic expansion, arms trading, and the creation of banking empires and mercenary companies.

Gunpowder appeared in 12th-century China. Trace its creation and geographic spread, as well as the early weaponry of "fire lances," explosive devices, and rockets. Afterward, study the technology of the second gunpowder "revolution" in Europe as it dramatically boosted the power of guns and cannon, transforming warmaking on land and sea.

Warfare was central to societies outside the Eurasian core, though lacking the advanced technology of the core civilizations. Explore the culture of war in the kingdoms of Sudanic and southern Africa, the military technology of Oceanic peoples, and evidence of armed conflicts in the Norse, Inuit, and Siberian cultures.

Agriculture and population growth spurred violence in ancient Mesoamerica and South America. Uncover the records of the Mayans and Toltecs (which reveal warlike cultures with warrior elites) and evidence for sophisticated warfare among North American peoples, the Aztecs, and the Incas.

In Renaissance Europe, spiraling costs of war shifted power to central governments and merchant city-states. Probe the intellectual revolutions that came with the rediscovery of classical texts and the invention of printing. Then meet a new brand of military leader: one backed by a science of warfare and the first modern armies.

European expansionism was aided by groundbreaking naval technology, particularly the armed galleon. Learn about the Portuguese conquest of sea routes in Africa and Asia and the entry of Spanish forces into the Americas, which led to bloody conflicts with the Aztec, Mayan, and Incan empires.

Changing global economics and large-scale arms trading led to the rise of empires backed by gunpowder technology. Study the many forms of gunpowder weaponry and the multilayered infrastructure surrounding it in the military cultures of the Ottoman, Persian, Russian, and Chinese empires.

The 16th and 17th centuries saw deepening religious conflicts. Trace the clash of Portugal and Spain with Islam, the Ottoman conquests of Europe, and the Mughal-Hindu wars in India. Then, investigate Ottoman and Mughal cosmopolitanism, the Sunni-Shi'a divide within Islam, and the violent conflicts of the Protestant Reformation.

In the late 17th century, European power began a historic ascent. Learn about the revolutions in military organization that made this possible and the evolution of the regiment—which became the cornerstone of a complex, professional military culture that spread throughout the European-controlled world.

Europe's growing power was built on a vast maritime culture, serving trade, warfare, and exploration. Delve into the fascinating details of the highly structured crews that manned sophisticated warships and merchant vessels, as well as the great bureaucracies that oversaw fleets and naval strategy and gave rise to the scientific study of marine warfare.

Eighteenth-century trade created world-spanning conflicts. European trading companies, backed by private armies and warships, battled for profits from silver, fur, and cash crops. Trace the slave system and the role of privateers and piracy in political rivalries in Asia, Europe, and the New World.

Europe's nation-states created a highly effective political system, with nobles and military centralized under governments operated by civilian bureaucrats. Study the culture of the nation-state, which brought new conceptions of loyalty, social identity, and wars supported by merchant trade and innovative tax systems.

Discover the many contexts of armed conflict in the New World. Study the Spanish wars of conquest from Chile to New Mexico, the powerful Native American tribal states, the brutal military control of slave populations, and the pivotal roles played by colonial militias and self-made officers during the American Revolution.

Military strength in Asia and Africa declined through the 17th and 18th centuries. Consider the core factors in this decline, including the failure by China and India to follow European advances in technology and naval strength. Afterward, investigate internal decay in the Ottoman Empire and the military fortunes of powerful African kingdoms.

The Industrial Revolution brought world-changing advances in military technology, as mass production and dramatic improvements in transportation saw the rise of both national and corporate arms industries. Survey French, German, and American breakthroughs in firearms, along with the creation of steamships, armored warships, and the submarine.

Nationalism became the most important political and military ideology of the 19th century, inspiring wars and revolutions across the world. Explore the emergence of nationalism; Socialist, Communist, and anarchist movements; and religious ideologies from "muscular Christianity" to new forms of militant Islam.

Complex conditions of class, race, and gender shaped 19th-century warmaking. Track the historic rise of commoners to high military ranks; the "racial theory" that affected blacks, other non-Europeans, and Jews in Western militaries; and the ways that women distinguished themselves on and off the battlefield.

European nation-states reached global political and military dominance in the 19th century. Uncover the core strategy and methodology of Western imperialism and see how European power was rooted in advanced technology and the failure of many non-Western states to keep pace with industrial systems and modern armies.

Nineteenth-century wars left numerous marks on world culture, including military models in education and war literature, memoirs, journalism, and history writing. Here, explore the deep imprints of war in 19th-century music, fashion, social customs, and art.

In this lecture, chart the spread of a common, global military methodology during the 20th century. Study the core weapons systems and naval technology, as well as the transformative changes in warfare that followed the advent of the internal combustion engine, aircraft and related weaponry, and wireless communications.

Emerging political creeds played critical roles in 20th-century warfare. Fascist regimes deemed warfare necessary and pursued expansionism rooted in racist ideology. Communist ideologues viewed class conflict as inevitably violent and embraced large-scale militarization. Investigate how these two systems clashed with each other and with nationalist democracies in the two world wars and other related conflicts.

In the 20th century, nationalist sentiment remained a powerful force, despite many ideology-based regimes and wars. Study the conflict between Communist states and disputes over national boundaries, which saw the favoring of nationalist interests over ideological ones. Also, examine the issues of national identity and ethnicity that underlay militarism in both new and traditional nation-states.

Enormous costs of war posed critical challenges for modern nation-states. See how capitalist economics and organization outstripped totalitarian regimes in managing wars, shaping the outcomes of the 20th century's major conflicts. Learn also how military and civilian technology penetrated each other, producing revolutionary advances in transportation, communications, and energy.

War's social imprints in democratic societies showed new trends. Investigate how popular culture in all media became the forum for heroic depictions of war, with an emphasis on the individual's experience in wartime. Conversely, learn how public reaction against war manifested itself as antimilitarism in the high culture of modern art, poetry, and literature.

Information and intelligence became critical to 20th-century conflicts as governments censored communications and restricted public media. Study the use of propaganda as a major tool by the British, Soviets, and Germans and the practice of spying and communications intelligence in the interwar period and the cold war.

Chart the history and modern practice of guerrilla warfare and terrorism, the subtle distinctions between the two, and their ideological roots. Also, probe the ambiguities that characterize their tactics as either political warfare or criminal acts in a violent landscape of bombings, "proxy" wars, civilian casualties, and counterinsurgency.

New ideological movements and institutions arose in response to war in the 20th century. Consider the theories of "law of war" that underlay the Geneva Conventions and war crimes trials and trace formal initiatives to eliminate war, including the League of Nations, pacifist movements, and the work of the United Nations.

The series concludes with an analysis of complex conditions of warfare in the last 20 years. Study the military uses of computers and the Internet, critical legal issues of war, current motivators for conflict, and evidence of decreasing warfare. Professor Roth offers reflections on his own experience with the military.