Crossroads of Civilization: A History of Central Asia

Begin with a geographic overview of Central Asia, a land of climatic extremes, encompassing mountain ranges, rivers, vast deserts, and fertile steppes. Take account of the two types of societies that emerged here: nomadic peoples of the desert and steppe and agriculturalists of the waterways and oases. Learn about the ways of life of these peoples, and their historical interactions.

The Scythians were among the first people to dominate large parts of Central Asia. Explore their nomadic lifestyle, and their excavated burial mounds, showing spectacular grave goods with great artistic sophistication, and their penchant for mass human sacrifice. Study their interactions with sedentary peoples and the Persians and review astonishing archaeological findings that confirm some of the more outlandish parts of Herodotus’s account of the Scythians from the fourth century BCE.

The history of the Eurasian steppe was shaped by the interface of the nomadic tribes at its core and the sedentary civilizations that surrounded it. Track the incursions onto the steppe of the Persian Achaemenid Dynasty, the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom, the Kushan Empire, and the Han Dynasty of China. See how these interactions produced a remarkable fusion of cultures, ideas, and languages.

Religion became a key form of cultural fusion in early Central Asia. Trace the influence in the region of the beliefs and rituals of Zoroastrianism, and the role of Buddhism in the development of long-distance trade. Grasp the prominence of the Persian province of Sogdiana in the Silk Road. Learn of the ancient civilization's embrace of Nestorian Christianity, through which the religion first entered Central Asia and China.

The Xiongnu nomads of Mongolia were one of the first nomadic confederations to become an empire. Chart the Xiongnu's defeat of the Chinese Han dynasty, and the eventual success of the Han in reducing the Xiongnu to vassals. Learn about the key role of procured luxury goods in Xiongnu political culture, the stunning intricacy of nomadic animal art, and core nomadic religious beliefs and practices.

Trace the origins of Turkic nomadic peoples, the emergence of the Turkic khaganate in the sixth century, and their expansion to become the first empire to link Europe with China. With the fall of the Turk khaganate, there rose another Turkic empire, the Uyghur khaganate. Grasp the distinctive role of the religion of Manichaeism under Uyghur rule and the Uyghur construction of impressive cities.

The Khazar khaganate was unique in being a Jewish state which took root outside of the Middle East. Investigate the origins of the Khazars, how they came to embrace Judaism, and the function the faith played in their political life. Explore their singular culture and system of two rulers, and how their powerful state dominated central areas of the steppe for nearly three centuries.

The absorption of Central Asia into the Islamic world completely transformed the region and its peoples. Study the four phases of the Arab conquest of the Eurasian steppe in the seventh and eighth centuries, and the resulting cosmopolitan Islamic civilization which integrated the cultures of nomadic and sedentary peoples. Trace the history of rule in the region by the Abbasid caliphate.

The Samanid dynasty followed the Abbasid tradition of patronage of scholars and artists, making its great capital of Bukhara a center of learning that rivaled Baghdad. Take the measure of some of history's greatest minds that emerged in this setting, such as polymaths Avicenna, considered the father of modern medicine; visionary philosopher al-Farabi; and "first anthropologist" al-Biruni.

As precursors to the renowned Mongols, observe how the Qarakhanid Empire helped build a distinct Turko-Persian civilization and intellectual life. Then trace the epic conquests of the Mongols, who created one of the largest empires in history. Grasp the ways in which, despite their aggression and brutality, the Mongols continued the legacy of the Turko-Persian empires which preceded them.

Travel through the incredible life of the fearsome 14th-century conqueror Timur, or Tamerlane, whose legacy lives on in Central Asia today. Take account of his extraordinary political shrewdness and empire-building; his legendary cruelty as a military leader; and his patronage of the arts, leaving a cultural flowering and stunning architectural monuments in his sumptuous capital of Samarqand.

Explore the culture of Sufism, the mystical branch of Islam, whose followers seek a direct oneness with God. Observe how Sufism took root in Central Asia, where it remains strong today, and look into its core traditions and beliefs. Note the key role of Sufi masters in religious life and visit the shrine to Sufi saint Khoja Ahmed Yasawi and the holy mountain known as the Throne of Solomon.

The two centuries following the death of Tamerlane in 1405 were a time of cultural flourishing in Central Asia. Under the Timurids and their successors, the Shibanids, witness the growth of a sophisticated Islamic culture, seen in the profusion of madrasas (academies of learning), and wide patronage of the arts and sciences. See also how Sufi masters came to substantially influence politics.

In the 17th and 18th centuries, Central Asia saw a complex quilt of state-building from east to west. In East Turkestan, follow the emergence of the Sufi Altishahr state in the south, the Buddhist Zungar khanate in the north, and a florescence in the arts. To the west, track the rise of the Kazakh khanate, and the vibrant cultures of the city states of Khiva, Bukhara, and Kokand.

Dig into the history and lore of the city-state of Bukhara, as it became one of the premier centers of learning in the Islamic world, and a major stop on the Silk Road. See how Bukhara gained prominence under the Shibanids, who left works of majestic architecture. Study the culture of the madrasas, academies which attracted scholars and students from Syria to Siberia.

Uncover the origins of the Russian state and of the Russian Empire, which came to include nomadic peoples of the steppe. Grasp the factors that led to the Russian Empire's 19th-century campaign to control the steppe. Witness the Russian buildup of forts and supply lines, leading to their conquests of Kokand, Bukhara, Khiva, and Turkmen lands from the 1860s to 1880s, absorbing Central Asia into the Russian Empire.

Russia-ruled Central Asia followed the example set by the European colonial empires. In Turkestan, learn how Russian administrators studied their colonized populations to better control them, and created a typically colonial legal system. In Tashkent, witness the division of the city into a European and native town, and oppressive conditions brought by urbanization and the brutal edge of Russian rule.

Examine the actions of the Tsarist regime aimed at making colonized Central Asia profitable. Observe how the Russian creation of a huge cotton industry - flooding the steppe with Russian settlers - caused tragic hardship for Central Asians, while also fostering anticolonial artistic expression. Relive the events of the vast rebellion that ended the Tsarist colonial era in Central Asia.

Delve into the events of the Russian revolution of 1917 and the Bolsheviks' ideology and tactics designed to make communist rule appealing. With Central Asia divided into five semi-autonomous republics, witness the Soviet collectivization of farms, mechanization of industries, and parallel repression of Islamic culture. See how Soviet policies led to horrific famines and vast loss of life.

Revisit the era known as the Great Terror, in which Stalin annihilated the first generation of Soviet communists in Central Asia, with the execution and deportation of intellectuals, political figures, and entire ethnicities. Grasp the ways in which the hardships and horrors of World War II, notwithstanding the vast suffering, laid the foundations of a Soviet identity for Central Asians.

The mid-1950s to mid-1980s were in many ways a golden age in Central Asia's modern history. Following World War II, trace new and substantial industrial and economic development in the region, as well as advances in media and education, religious freedoms, and the emergence of a distinct Central Asian Soviet culture. Note how Soviet policies in this period created new opportunities for millions.

As the Soviet economy stagnated in the 1970s, witness how Central Asia nevertheless experienced accelerated economic development. Learn about substantial industrial and urban growth in the region, and dramatically improved living standards. Also, explore rampant governmental corruption in Central Asia, rising nationalist sentiment, and the factors leading to the dissolution of the Soviet Union.

Assess the Chinese claim that the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region, East Turkestan, has always been part of China. Look at evidence for the Uyghur view of the region as the homeland of a Uyghur nation. Then look into Chinese rule of Xinjiang, dating from the Qing Dynasty, and current Chinese policy in the region, a cultural assimilation campaign holding over a million Uyghurs in forced reeducation camps.

Conclude with a look at Central Asia following the USSR's fall. Witness the severe hardships and political unrest suffered by Central Asians as the five republics struggled to extricate themselves from the Soviet sphere and to chart a way forward. Take account of growing prosperity of Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan, and the continuing challenges facing Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan.